Epigenetic therapy

After learning about epigenetics, I was curious when the term "Epigenetic Therapy" came up. We learned about gene therapy earlier this year and I wanted to see if the two were related in any way. I learned a lot of information about epigenetic therapy through the short video that we watched. However, I wanted to know more specifics. In addition, I wanted to know if scientists had done more research. Basically, epigenetic therapy helps to prevent from killing the cell. Instead, it will try to change the directions of the cancer cells rather than completely killing it. The video described a trial that was done for epigenetic therapy. When patients were treated with this therapy, about half of them went into remission(Tyson 2007).

After becoming intrigued with this information, I decided to look up to see how epigenetic therapy has been used to help people with cancer. In fact, it was found that this type of therapy helps fight against several blood cancers! Scientists used "OTX015, a member of a new class of investigational epigenetic therapies that block the activity of bromodomain and extraterminal(BET)-Bromodomain proteins" (Boltz 2014). These proteins mentioned help determine if a gene will be turned on or off. As learned in the video, the proteins attach to epigenetic flags on the genome. Any abnormal positions of the flags can be a sign of cancer and the positioning "can inappropriately turn genes on or off, helping drive these cancers" (Boltz 2014). The OTX015 us used to inhibit the proteins, and currently a study is being undergone to determine how much a OTX015 should be give to a patient and when. This is taken orally by patients "with hematologic malignancies"(Boltz 2014).

In terms of results, scientists have found that many lymphoma and leukemia patients are responding very well to this type of therapy. Scientists had 42 patients in their latest clinical trial, with half battling lymphoma and leukemia while the other half battled other hematologic malignancies. With each group, scientists gave patients different doses as well as giving them the medication on different schedules. Many participants were very successful when using the therapy.

Overall, I learned a lot about how epigenetic therapy is being used in the real world. An additional question that I have is if there is any additional research going on about other cancers? Given the success of this clinical trial, I am sure that it would benefit so many other patients suffering through different types of cancers.



Boltz, K. (2014, April 22). Epigenetic therapy clinically active against several blood cancers. Retrieved March 26, 2015, from http://www.oncologynurseadvisor.com/epigenetic-therapy-clinically-active-against-several-blood-cancers/article/343509/

Epigenetics [Motion picture]. (2007). PBS.

Advancements for Turner Syndrome

After learning about sex chromosome abnormalities, I wanted to look more into Turner Syndrome. As a female, I wanted to learn more about the how someone affected with this syndrome goes about day to day life. I wanted to look more into this syndrome because it is rare so therefore I did not know much about it. As we learned in class, Turner Syndrome affects about 1 in 2,500 females. It occurs when only one of the X chromosomes functions, while the other X chromosome is abnormal or missing. Symptoms include reduced fertility, abnormal ovarian function, and short stature. Other symptoms may include “heart defects, kidney problems, hearing loss, high blood pressure, and webbed skin on their necks”(Botelho 1). For the most part, intelligence is not affected. Yet, scientists have found that social issues may arise from this disorder. It can be very difficult for a female to deal with insecurities about having this syndrome; for example, not being able to have children.

I wanted to find an article discussing how women with Turner Syndrome function of a day to day basis. However, I found something much more interesting. A woman, Mariam Beit- Aharon, discovered that she had Turner Syndrome after going to a pediatric endocrinologist. After they mapped her genes, it showed that she had a missing X chromosome; this discovery explained her short stature. She also has “low-set ears, a double row of eyelashes, and slightly crooked elbow joints” (Botelho 1). Yet, what really intrigued me about this woman is what she decided to do about her syndrome. She took growth hormone injections daily after she was diagnosed. She started to take estrogen therapy when she was in high school. This estrogen therapy was a form of birth control used to help her begin menstruation. She hopes to have kids one day, with hopefully the option of IV or adoption.

Scientists are looking into options for the future for those with Turner Syndrome. One woman, geneticist Angela Lin, is currently looking into whether IVF therapy is safe for women who want to get pregnant yet have Turner Syndrome. Others, such as pediatric endocrinologist Marsha Davenport, is currently in the lead of a “clinical trial to understand whether giving low amounts of growth hormone to girls with Turner immediately after birth, instead of in early childhood, can improve their early brain development” (Botelho 1).

I thought that this story was very interesting. For the majority of women with Turner Syndrome, they are able to function normally with the exception of being fertile. Yet, I would be interested in seeing how gene therapy will be used in the future for this disorder. Since we learned about both gene therapy and sex chromosome abnormalities, it is an interesting connection that could be linked. This article taught me a lot about some steps that women are taking to “enter womanhood”, as Mariam stated. I am sure that the developments in science will come to help those with Turner Syndrome.

Botelho, A. (2014, April 7). Women with Turner Syndrome tell their stories - The Boston Globe. Retrieved February 24, 2015, from http://www.bostonglobe.com/lifestyle/health-wellness/2014/04/07/women-with-turner-syndrome-tell-their-stories/Y0z0o6X5K162vLjqt0907J/story.html

Yellowstone Wolves

A video in which I had particular interest in was about Yellowstone National Park and the dysfunctional ecosystem. Prior to watching the video in class, I assumed that Yellowstone was in perfect condition because it was protected land. Never once did I consider the consequences of an event of something that happened more than half a century ago. 

                While we have learned about many interesting things this month, I was most drawn to what was occurring at Yellowstone. I was so hooked by the documentary, particularly because I love nature so much. When I was in 7^th grade, I traveled to Alaska and visited Denali National Park. There were so many wild animals and I believed that everything was fine. However, after watching this documentary, I started to wonder if maybe under the surface things were not as good as many people thought initially. If this is the case, I would like to get more insight into the problem at Yellowstone in the hopes that it could help prevent any problems from occurring at Denali.I would think it would be a shame if the ecosystem in Alaska was just as dysfunctional as the one in Yellowstone. 

                I was very curious to see how the wolves are affecting the ecosystem at Yellowstone today, as the video is around nine years old. What I found was quite different than what I would have expected. A journalist at Popular Science has investigated the wolves and the ecosystem many times before. Yet, when she recently looked at how things were developing, she found that the willows are not recovering as was expected. She has a possible hypothesis that “the wolves don’t actually scare elk away from their preferred feeding areas, as earlier research suggested they might…when elk are hungry, they’re going to take their chances with the wolves” (Gertz 2014). I was quite shocked at this study. It seemed as though the ecosystem would resume to its ways before the 1930’s. However, newer evidence throws out that idea. Marris also touched on another interesting point. She mentions that the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone might have occurred too late. The documentary also touched on the beavers that built their dams in their marshy habitat. When the elks remained superior, “the beaver numbers dropped, and so did the extent of marshy habitat (Gertz 2014). All in all, I was very surprised. I had assumed right after class that with the reintroduction of wolves that everything would be fine. However, it seems that every little action has a consequence that does not show itself until the long run. 

                I believe that there is much more to learn about this topic. However, I would like to wait for around ten more years to see how the ecosystem has progressed. It seems to me that it takes a little while to see progress occurring. Therefore, with time, it should be evident of the effects of the reintroduction of wolves in the long run. 

Gertz, E. (2014, March 14). Has The Reintroduction Of Wolves Really Saved Yellowstone? Retrieved December 17, 2014, from http://www.popsci.com/article/science/have-wolves-really-saved-yellowstone

Why the Canadian Arctic?

Throughout this past month, we talked a great deal about Tiktaalik. I was immediately interested in this topic and eager to learn more about the creature that came from water onto land. We learned a lot about this creature, however, I still wondered about how the scientists discovered this creature. I wanted to know how the scientists were able to specifically identify the area they did to look for him. Based on an interview with Neil Shubin, I found that he discovered the location in a textbook for undergraduate geology. The three locations where rock that was 380 to 360 million years old were Eastern North America, Greenland, and the Canadian Arctic. The scientists chose this location to look for the fossil because no one had previously looked in the area. It has been extremely challenging to get to the location because of various permits and money that was needed for the many expeditions (Shubin, 2006). It seems that the researchers were very resourceful and put in a lot of effort for their expedition.

In class, we had already learned that the Canadian Arctic, about 1500 km long, was a perfect location to search for fossils because there is virtually no vegetation. As we saw in the video, the land was barren, which really allowed the scientists to be able to search for fossils. I wonder if they would have discovered Tiktaalik if there were trees, plants, dirt, ect. on the land? It would have definitely make the process go much longer.

I also learned how hard it is actually locate fossils.  Neil Shubin said that they had to go up to the location four different times over a course of six years. Each time they went up to the site, they discovered more and more. First nothing, then some bits of pieces, then larger pieces of fish fossils, and then in July of 2004 they discovered the whole skeleton to what they named Tiktaalik (Shubin, 2006). I am still in awe that they were able to find Tiktaalik mostly whole, after being in the rock for so long.

One last thing that I learned that was extremely interesting was why they named the vertebrae Tiktaalik. The Nunavut territory in Canada contained a group of elders who came up with the name. In their language, the Inuktitut language, it means a “large, freshwater fish” (Shubin, 2006). It is very fitting!

In terms of learning anything additional, I would like to know if any other fossils have been found that are descendants of Tiktaalik. It would be interesting to know if any full fossils of vertebrates have been found in the same area, as it is easier to identify with the barren land.  I hope that the researchers return to that area because of the success they eventually achieved there in 2004.

Shubin, N. (n.d.). Tiktaalik roseae: Home. Retrieved October 29, 2014.

Coevolution: Native and Invasive Plants

Reported in June 2012, the University of Georgia conducted a study in which it found that invasive species (kudzu, privet, and garlic mustard) and native plants (Clearwater plant) are currently undergoing co-evolution. Prior to this research, scientists believed that the native plants were unable to combat the invasive plants, which were introduced from Europe during the mid-1800’s. Yet, the study gave the first evidence to show that the native plants possibly evolved resistance to the garlic mustard plants. Yet, this is a prime example of co-evolution because the invasive plants are fighting back.

            When the invasive plants were introduced in the 1800’s, they quickly spread from New York, Virginia, and Chicago to the Northeast, Southeast, and the Midwest. They are able to survive by fighting with a compound called Sinigrin. This compound kills the fungi that helps native plants get nutrients from the soil. It is so effective because Sinigrin is new to North America. It is able to kill the native plants because these plants did not have a resistance to the compound. In addition, the invasive plants are able to survive because even after they are removed, they grow back after a year as forest undergrowth.

            Richard Lankau, who works at the university, has found evidence that the native plants have evolved because of the invader plants. He took a native Clearwater plant called Pilea pumila and found that it has higher resistance to Sinigrin. This shows that since this plant is in the same habitat as the garlic mustard, co-evolution has occurred. To explain further, he was able to get to this information because he found that the garlic mustard (the invasive plant investigated in his experiment) produced more Sinigrin in areas with more native plants.

            Lankau also found that the native plants were more successful at surviving when the garlic mustard was present. To figure this out, he took the native plants back to their origin location that did not have garlic mustard. The native plants that had already created a resistance did not survive as long without the garlic mustard present as the native plants that were not resistant when exposed with the garlic mustard. "It's not all good for those populations that are evolving tolerance because they are less successful in the absence of garlic mustard, their resistance to the invasive species comes at a cost” (Lankau 1).

            To conclude, the native and invasive plants are currently undergoing co-evolution and it is believed that at one point in time in the far future they may be able to coexist with each other.

Garlic Mustard

Pilea pumila

Fahmy, Sam (2012, June). Study Provides First Evidence of Coevolution between Invasive, Native Species. Retrieved October 19, 2014 from UGA Today.

Most Anticipated Topic: Viruses

A topic that I am really excited to learn about in Biology is viruses. It seems that there are many viruses that are breaking out all over the world. I would like to learn about what specifically causes viruses as well as potential solutions to solve these epidemics. I would also like to learn about how scientists go about finding a cure.Because they have the potential to affect all of us, we need to learn more about viruses.

I know a decent amount of information on viruses based on what I have learned in previous years. Viruses can only survive and replicate within host cells. Viruses have genetic information, which they inject into the host cell. They basically take over the machinery of a cell and uses it to produce more of that virus. They are having a large impact on the world today, and I think that it is important to know about this information before it can really hurt us.

In this course, we will not have a lot of time to look into current events. However, if there is time, I would like to learn about specific viruses. Recently, an Ebola epidemic has broken out all over the world. It is a very concerning virus, as Ebola has no known treatment. US citizens have contracted the virus while overseas, making it a potential threat at home. Another virus that has hit is a respiratory virus that is affecting kids in about ten states. Called Enterovirus D68, scientists believe that it will be spread around the country, especially with schools starting up. I read the article Is an Unusual Virus Spreading in the Midwest?, and learned a lot of information involving certain types of viruses. Specifically, I learned that there are more than 100 viruses classified as Enteroviruses(Fleur, 2014). They spread by contact to others that have already contracted the virus. Children have a greater probability of contracting the virus due to a weaker immune system(Fleur, 2014). EV- D68 can cause extreme problems in the respiratory system, which is a concern to scientists(Fleur, 2014). What I think is interesting with this virus is that the symptoms are those of a common cold, making it hard to detect(Fleur, 2014). I hope to learn more about the specifics of these virus, and what scientists have to do to find a cure for these viruses.





Reference Citation:

Freur, N. (2014, September 11). Is an Unusual Virus Spreading in the Midwest? Retrieved September 14, 2014.Website: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-an-unusual-virus-spreading-in-the-midwest/